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REPUBLIC
Hasan Bulent Paksoy
HB Paksoy, D.Phil.


The term ‘republic’ has been around for at least twenty-five hundred years. It is not only a reference to the governance of a polity, but also to the economic life of the same society. It is a term loaded with political statements. The original republics were comprised of mostly slaves. Athens and Rome are prominent examples. After Rome lost the name and character of republic in the hands of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, the term and the form did not appear prominently for some centuries. Around 15th century, Italian Thought employers began voicing their longing for a republic once again. Some Northern Italian city states adopted the form, often led by the merchants. Those are best termed as mercantile republics, due to their nature. The first important occurrences of the form republic are the 1776 American version, followed by the 1789 French.

It should be noted that the term republic intimates elections. The governance is administered by officials elected to that position, instead of any other mode. While monarchies utilized the argument that the ruler/monarch was appointed and anointed by God, and all the property in a polity belonged to the monarch, the republican mode saw private property belonging to individuals and the task of the elected officials was to enforce laws of the polity. In the case of the Roman republic that meant the Twelve Tables of 5th c. BCE. It was one of the earliest forms of constitution.

In a given polity, interactions between the Governed and the Governing Strata are symbiotic. The Governed desire, and indeed need, infrastructure services organized. If such basic foundations are not provided, the economic activity so deeply cherished by both groups cannot be realized. The Governing Strata cannot function without the Governed. After all, without the Governed, there will not be a polity; hence nothing to govern. Regardless of the politico-economic system in effect, this co-dependence is inevitable, inescapable, indenturing both groups to each other. This is the case, regardless of the designation, functions, or the style of the governance system. It matters not if the designation or philosophy of the said governance is a variation of pluralism or authoritarianism by a minority. Trouble starts when one of the two groups attempts to escape (or, neglect) responsibility. That is, endeavoring to break the symbiosis. If the group attempting to shed the previously prescribed responsibilities does so by forcing a change to the governance guidelines established over time, the conflict escalates.[ii]

Again, we must not forget other efforts of organizing the laws of a polity. Ancient Sumer’s Code of Ur-Nammu dates back to 2100-2050 BCE.[iii] Codification of Ancient Egyptian laws began about c.1800 BCE.[iv] Hammurabi is one of the earliest who did the same for Babylon (1795-1750 BCE).[v] Hitites were not far behind (c.1650 BCE).[vi] Solon did the same for Athens in 6th c. BCE[vii] Ashoka’s Column is another one, though it was primarily a Buddhist proselytizing effort (3rd c. BCE).[viii] This is by no means a complete list.

The Magna Carta (1215 CE) is seen by the British authors as an earlier form of Constitution. We must also mention that the British Constitution, as it new exists, is not written. The American effort began in 1776 but the Constitution was not written until 1787 in a long process.[ix] The French produced their first constitution, after replacing the monarchy with the First Republic, in 1791.
Some commentators praised Benjamin Franklin as a major force in that endeavor.[xi] Others credit Franklin’s membership in Masonry as the driving force in disseminating the idea.[xii] Similar arguments have been made, concerning the involvement of Masonry in the declaration of the first constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire, at the beginning of the 20th century.


The earliest Turk efforts, in standardizing their laws, are traceable to Kutadgu Bilig of 1069-1070.[xiii] It is known that Kutadgu Bilig arrived in Istanbul, from Tokat, in 1474 CE, during the time of Fatih Sultan Mehmet. It is likely that it was used as a textbook in the Enderun, Ottoman Palace School for training high Ottoman officials. Several generations later, Kanuni Sultan Suleyman codified the Ottoman laws. For that reason, Suleyman’s portrait is today in the great hall of the US House of Representatives.[xiv]

International sources regard the Ottoman The Hatt-i-Humayun Proclamation (1856) a confirmation of what the Hatt-i-Sharif of Gulhane established 17 years before (1839).[xv] Generally speaking that view is also accepted in the domains of the Ottomans,[xvi] though the Ministry of Foreign Affairs places the beginnings of the Turkish Republic’s first constitution with Selim the Third, 1789-1808.[xvii] The first Constitution of the Turkish Republic carries the date of 1921.[xviii] The next step was to refine it further, in 1924.[xix] That was followed by the 1961 Constitution[xx] and the 1982 Constitution.[xxi] One can debate the veracity of continually changing the primary laws of a polity. Just as important is the fact that, all those constitutions were primarily based on the precepts of the Roman Twelve Tables. That foundation is taught in Turkish Law Schools, under the heading of Roman law. No mention of Kutadgu Bilig is made in the law schools, nor are any of the principles adumbrated therein taught. That is more than a curiosity matter, and may come under the heading of ‘leavening.’[xxii] Doç. Dr. S. GÖMEÇ provided us with a good overview of the prevailing legal system and sources of the period.[xxiii]

It is obvious that the earlier examples of law codification were not all under republics. Many were done by absolute monarchs, for the purpose of freeing themselves from mundane, daily tasks. After all, as the ultimate authority in their own domains, they had to sit as a judge over all legal disputes. Having a standard set of laws would allow them a less crowded docket.

About a century and a half later, it became possible to draw a parallel between those edicts of the Ottoman Empire and the Soviet Empire’s demise under Glasnost.[xxiv] The noted similarities can be instructive.[xxv]

The French composer Claude Debussy (1862-1918) once commented: “music is the silence between notes.” Today, many European countries are kingdoms. Each has a constitution, free elections, elected officials and four freedoms as described by FD Roosevelt.[xxvi] On the other hand, there are dozens of ‘republics’ some defunct, such as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Democratic Republic of Germany, and those still extant, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and so on. Every one of those had, and some still has, very liberal constitutions. The application of those laws, however, can be even more harsh then many theocratic or secularist absolutist polities. So, one must look at the music between the notes.[xxvii]

As noted above, the Column of Ashoka contained the precepts of a religion, as desired by the so named ruler. It was intended as an imposition on the preferences of the members of the polity belonging to that empire. We must recall that, there is generally a tug-of-war between the governing and the governed strata in a given polity. Both sides are attempting to gain control over the other, for their own benefit. A revolution is a sure way of accomplishing that superiority over the other. However, the struggle never ends. There is always the preparation for a counter-revolution, seeking to overturn what the original revolution yielded. The French Revolution experienced those revolution-counterrevolution twins in a rather bloody fashion. So did the Russian Revolutions (we must remember, there was more than one), and a myriad of others. In the end, what assures the success of a revolution is the security apparatus of the revolutionary activity, along with the educational levels of the population involved.

Education, as described by a variety of Marxist uprisings, is a funny construct. Only reading Marx and Lenin (and their precursors) does not really constitute education. Those readings will only prepare a cadre that was intended to function as cannon fodder---to be sacrificed, in order to inspire future generations to follow Marx and Lenin. One must be familiar---i.e. have read---a broad spectrum of human experience of the past, in order to make sense of Marx and Lenin. They are not necessarily the ultimate truth, but a stop along the way of the long journey of humans.

Not every counter-revolution succeeds. That is because; the revolutionaries establish a variety of institutions to prevent the counter-revolutionaries from making inroads. These involve intelligence apparatus, enforcement squads and courts. Regardless of their fancy or populist sounding names, they are there to serve the revolution that spawned them. That can be a civilian or religious revolution.

With respect to Ashoka, who wished to convert everyone in his domains to Buddhism: his empire did not last. And the adherents he recruited into Buddhism are today members of another religion, Hinduism. That is because, Hinduism managed to convince the Buddhists that Buddhism is nothing but a branch of Hinduism. In fact, Buddhism was an uprising against the perceived injustice of Hinduism. Today, Hinduism has a cloak of nationalism, which is not that unusual for a religion. However, that is a temporary cloak, since religious belief cannot replace the love of homeland.

A number of Christian empires and states were formed in Europe between the demise of the Roman Empire (476 CE) and the 1789 French Revolution. Today, none of them exist in the form their founders envisioned. Not even the Spanish Empire, which managed to expel the Moslem Arabs from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492.

Similarly, the Caliphates of the Islamic entities immediately engaged n political differences, and yielded to the Turks by the 11th c. The Mamluks, initially Turks from Central Asia, later replaced by Circassians and other Caucasians, were established as a military guard for protecting the life of the Arab Caliphs. That was because the Arab Caliphs, by experience, did not trust their Arabic kinsmen, and needed real protection. Soon afterward, that Mamluk military guard became the maker and un-maker of Caliphs, much like the Roman Praetorian Guard, the de-facto ruler in the Caliphate. Those orders of affairs were interrupted briefly by the arrival of Mongols, who were defeated at ain Jalut (1260) CE (today in Israel) by the Mamluk Turks under Baybars and Kutuz. That was the first defeat of the Mongols, another tribal confederation of Central Asian origins, who were mortal enemies of the Central Asian Turks.[xxviii] In 1517, the Caliphate was brought to Istanbul, when the Ottoman Emperor Selim I took upon his own shoulders the mantle of Caliph. The Caliphate remained in Turkish hands until the Turkish War of Liberation which started in 1919 and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[xxix]

One of the important aspects of the French Revolution of 1789 was that, in France the monarchy was replaced by the First French Republic. Equally important was the same revolution putting an end to the powers of the Papacy over the French. The First French Republic fell to a sort of counter-revolution under Napoleon, and became an Empire (1804–1814/1815). After Napoleon’s defeat by the British and German allies at Waterloo (1815), the Royal Bourbon family was restored to the crown of France and ruled as such between 1814 and 1830. Roman Catholic Church also returned to power in France via the Bourbons.[xxx] The year 1848 saw another French Republic established, reversing, once again, the fortunes of all participating.[xxxi] One could consider this a counter-counter revolution, as it carried the wishes of the French population. The Third and Fourth French Republics had similar reasons.[xxxii] Yet, the House of Bourbon still exists today, domiciled partly in France. Occasionally they release proclamations indicating that they wish to return to govern France. Apparently, a certain segment of the population is still receptive to the idea.

We had earlier noted that Ashoka imposed his will on the population of his empire, yet, there is no discernible evidence of Buddhism in his former homeland. However, Buddhism influenced other religions before withdrawing inside invisible borders. Some practices found in Sufism and tasavvuf (mysticism), are actually Buddhist practices that precede the emergence of Islam. For example, "entering the grave before death" in order to devote one's entire remaining moments to prayer is one such practice. So is "cile doldurmak" in the tekke (also practiced in Christianity, in monasteries), the act of withdrawing to a solitary cell, seen necessary for reaching truth and maturity. Also in this category is the halvet (a ceremony of oath taking after being initiated into a sect; sometimes over several days). Surprisingly or not, other Buddhist precepts are also visible today in Islam, such as non-aggression. One example is below.

An outspoken critic of the Taliban's tactics in her native Swat Valley from a young age, Malala was the subject of an attempted assassination[xxxiii] at the hands of a Taliban gunman because she was unafraid to speak out.
Then, at just 14 years old, a Talib fighter boarded her bus, pointed a pistol at her head, and pulled the trigger. But she survived, made a full recovery in England, and has become and transformative figure in human rights.
Now, she is poised to become the youngest Nobel Prize laureate ever. In the key moment of the interview, Stewart asked her how she reacted when she learned that the Taliban wanted her dead. Her answer was absolutely remarkable:
I started thinking about that, and I used to think that the Talib would come, and he would just kill me. But then I said, 'If he comes, what would you do Malala?' then I would reply to myself, 'Malala, just take a shoe and hit him.' But then I said, 'If you hit a Talib with your shoe, then there would be no difference between you and the Talib. You must not treat others with cruelty and that much harshly, you must fight others but through peace and through dialogue and through education.' Then I said I will tell him how important education is and that 'I even want education for your children as well.' And I will tell him, 'That's what I want to tell you, now do what you want.'[xxxiv]

As we have seen, just the name 'republic' does not make it so. The application of the idea of free elections do not make it so either. What makes a republic work, is the determination of the 'republicans,' and all those who are living in the republic. That determination is only available when fortified with testable and not metaphysical esoteric knowledge. And, the moral compass of the adherents of republic must also be kept under constant observation.[xxxv] Everything is open to corruption, due to human nature. Corruption is the propensity of ambitious individuals jumping over the queue. A group of individuals wish to reach their objectives without delay, without regard to the moral compass. A governing strata always attempts to create a cadre of 'rich supporters' so that their money can be utilized to further the aims of the governance strata, with their 'donations' to the aims of the governing apparatus. In a way, it is another way of looking at 'extortion.' So, the governing strata either overlooks those ambitious individuals or encourages them.[xxxvi]

Therefore, religion and all other belief systems are not immune to corruption, including that of 'republic.' In fact, both the republic and the belief systems are open to misappropriation of fundamental precepts then even the financial markets. Examples abound. The finances are eventually measured with money, and an accounting can be made speedily. Moral corruption, on the other hand, may not appear for centuries, as it has been observed in Christianity and in Islam. The following proverb accurately sums the reasons for corruption: men are tested with women; women are tested with gold; gold is tested with fire.[xxxvii] It was a Roman who made that statement before the establishment of Christianity or Islam.

As one example of corruption, we have the demise of the Roman Republic before our eyes. For the sake of expediency, for momentary security, the Republican Romans did not object to Caesar' initiatives and allowed him to crown himself an emperor, ending the Republic of Rome. Several American Founding Fathers stated versions of the following statement, including Benjamin Franklin: Those who give up their liberty for more security neither deserve liberty nor security. Looking at the current events and applications, one is hard pressed to deny that they were prescient. This is especially so in the case of Thomas Jefferson.[xxxviii] In the end, one might suggest "Alin Yazisi Mi, Kisi Secimi mi?" and "Toplum Olarak Varilmak Istenen Sonuc Nedir?"[xxxix]

________________________________________
Twelve Tables http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/12tables.html

[ii] HB Paksoy, IDENTITIES: How Governed, Who Pays? (Malaga: Entelequia, 2996). 2nd Ed.
http://www.eumed.net/entelequia/pdf/b002.pdf
[iii] http://www.ancient.eu.com/Ur-Nammu/
[iv] http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/administration/law.html
[v] http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/hamcode.asp
[vi] http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~rnoyer/courses/51/Ling512011Hittites.pdf
[vii] http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/solon.html
[viii]http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=182353&partId=1
[ix] http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html
http://ic.ucsc.edu/~traugott/hist171/readings/1791-09ConstitutionOf1791
[xi] http://www.pbs.org/benfranklin/l3_world_france.html
[xii] http://www.gomasons.org/what-is-freemasonry/famous-freemasons/benjamin-franklin/
[xiii] http://aton.ttu.edu/kilavuzlar.asp
[xiv] HB Paksoy (“Turkish History, Leavening of Cultures, Civilization”), Essays on Central Asia (Lawrence: Carrie, 1999)
http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae23.html
[xv]http://sitemaker.umich.edu/emes/sourcebook&mode=single&recordID=
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000097045&nextMode=list

[xvi] http://www.scribd.com/doc/40556438/Tanzimat-Fermani-#%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%B8%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-
%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A-Gulhane-Hatt-i-Humayun-%D9%83%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87-%D8%AE%D8%B7-
%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81%D9%8A-Imperial-Edict-of-Reorganization-of-Ottoman-Empire-31-10-2010-Erkan-Kir

[xvii] http://www.mfa.gov.tr/constitution-of-the-republic-of-turkey.en.mfa
[xviii] http://turk-tarih.tr.gg/Yeni-T.ue.rk-Devletinin-%26%23304%3Blk-Anayasas%26%23305%3B.htm
And http://www.ataturkinkilaplari.com/it/39
[xix] http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/anayasa/anayasa24.htm
[xx] http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/anayasa/anayasa61.htm
[xxi] http://www.anayasa.gen.tr/1982ay.htm
[xxii] HB Paksoy (“Maya, T.A.S.”), Turk Tarihi, Toplumlarin Mayasi, Uygarlik
(Izmir: Mazhar Zorlu Holding, 1997)
http://www.academia.edu/500364/Turk_Tarihi_Toplumlarin_Mayasi_Uygarlik
[xxiii] Doç. Dr. S. GÖMEÇ, "İSLAM ÖNCESİ TÜRK TARİHİNİN KAYNAKLARI ÜZERİNE" Ankara Üniversitesi Dergiler Veritabanı
http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/detail.php?id=18&sayi_id=28
[xxiv] HB Paksoy (“KOPRULU/VELES (YUGOSLAVIA) OTTOMAN GARRISON'S RESPONSE TO THE 1909 RECIDIVIST UPRISING IN ISTANBUL”) Essays on Central Asia (Lawrence: Carrie, 1999)
http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae21.html
[xxv] HB Paksoy, Bagimsiz Yasam Istegi (Florence: Carrie/European University Institute, 2012)
http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-15/Bagimsiz%20Yasam%20Istegi%202012.pdf
[xxvi] HB Paksoy (“Nationality or Religion: Views of Central Asian Islam”), Essays on Central Asia (Lawrence: Carrie, 1999)
http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae02.html
[xxvii] HB Paksoy, “Dunya Degistiren mi, Deger Yargisinda Bulunan mi?”), Uzaysal Yonetim Beklerken (Florence: Carrie/European University Institute).
http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-12/UZAYSAL%20YONETIM%20BEKLERKEN_Paksoy.pdf
[xxviii] Richard Warren Field, “750th Anniversary of One of the Most Neglected Battles in History/The Battle of Ayn Jalut”
http://creativeeccentric.wordpress.com/2010/09/03/750th-anniversary-of-one-of-the-most-neglected-battles-in-historythe-battle-of-ayn-jalut/
[xxix] HB Paksoy (“US and Bolshevik Relations with the TBMM Government: The First Contacts 1919-1921”)
Essays on Central Asia (Lawrence: Carrie, 1999)
http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-6/cae02.html
[xxx] http://www.bartleby.com/86/55.html
[xxxi] http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/dh/frprogov.htm
[xxxii] http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32715/32715-h/32715-h.htm
[xxxiii] http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/09/world/asia/malala-shooting-anniversary/index.html
[xxxiv] [url=http://www.businessinsider.com/malala-yousafzai-left-jon-stewart-speechless-2013-10#ixzz2hKS4nGmy]
http://www.businessinsider.com/malala-yousafzai-left-jon-stewart-speechless-2013-10#ixzz2hKS4nGmy[/url]
[xxxv] Prof. Dr. Ali Demirsoy, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, "BİAT KÜLTÜRÜ NEDEN BAĞIMSIZ DAVRANMAYI ÖNLÜYOR?"
http://www.tgb.gen.tr/haberler/4609-biat-kulturu-neden-bagimsiz-davranmayi-onluyor
[xxxvi] HB Paksoy ("Tutuculuk ve Ilericilik") Bagimsiz Yasam Istegi (Florence: Carrie/European University Institute, 2012)
http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-15/Bagimsiz%20Yasam%20Istegi%202012.pdf
[xxxvii] Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c.3 BCE-AD 65)
http://www.egs.edu/library/lucius-annaeus-seneca/biography/
[xxxviii] HB Paksoy ("Surec Aygiti") Bagimsiz Yasam Istegi (Florence: Carrie/European University Institute, 2012)
http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-15/Bagimsiz%20Yasam%20Istegi%202012.pdf
[xxxix] HB Paksoy, Dusuncelerin Kokenleri (Florence: Carrie/European University Institute, 2006)
http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-10/paksoy_dusuncelerin-kokenleri.pdf

About the Author: H. B. PAKSOY is happily retired. Earlier, he taught at eight universities, published fifteen books. Previously he also published over sixty research papers, appearing in more than thirty-five countries situated on all habited continents. He earned his doctorate (D. Phil.) from Oxford University, England (with a Grant from the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals of the Universities of the United Kingdom), M.A. at the University of Texas at Dallas (with a National Science Foundation Project Grant Assistantship), and B.S. at Trinity University (with Bostwick Scholarship).


DISCLOSURE:
1) This paper was invited by the Turkish-American Community and American Friends of Turkey in the Tri-State Area to Celebrate the 90th Anniversary of the Turkish Republic, and was prepared specifically for the audience gathering in New York City to celebrate the 90th year of the Turkiye Cumhuriyeti, to be presented on 27 October. Personal delivery by the named author became unfeasible, due to injuries sustained in an automobile accident earlier in the month.
2) It is shared with The Light Millennium for e-publishing purpose by the author.

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